The Major Theories of Crime Causation

Table of Contents Introduction The rational choice theory The social structure theory Conclusion References Introduction The survival of any civilization hinges on the establishment of laws and codes of conduct and the subsequent obeying of the same by the members of the society. Since not all members of the community follow the law on their own accord, forms of punishment for wrongs done may be used both for retribution and deterrence purposes.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Major Theories of Crime Causation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Over the years researchers have developed theories on how the brain works in regards to processing information, learning, and environmental adaptation. These theories have made it possible for various experts to identify and divide human beings according to their different intellectual capabilities and behaviors. In this paper, we shall research on how criminals come into being, the different types of criminals and the theories that best relate crime to the perpetrators. This paper argues that criminals in our societies are fueled by various political, social and environmental factors. The different theories that have been formulated to correlate this statement shall be explored, and the rationale behind them analyzed. According to Dweck (2000), there is a difference between a fixed and growth mindset. She states that people with a fixed mindset often believe in the basic intelligence they are born. They often doubt their abilities because their minds cannot perceive beyond what they think they can manage, and as such, they lack the motivation to try harder because they are afraid to lose. On the other hand, those with a growth mindset perceive challenges as an opportunity to prove and test their mental capabilities. With this in mind, the question that begs to be answered is: why do people commit crimes? The answer to this question can best be addressed by exploring the various theories that explain the causes of crime. The rational choice theory Miller (2009) asserts that this theory assumes that crime is a rational action undertaken by people and aimed towards an expected outcome. Therefore, crime is a matter of choice and is orchestrated with due diligence to the risks and benefits that may be accrued upon the undertaking of such actions. He claims that this theory is based on concepts that determine the motive behind every criminal activity. From this statement, it is evident that crime is a matter of careful planning and cost-benefit analysis. Siegel (2003) states that the perpetrators decide on which crime to commit after evaluating both the personal factors (financial gain, entertainment, revenge, etc.) and the situational factors such as availability of opportunities, police concentration and the level of security present.Advertising Looking for essay on criminology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your fi rst paper with 15% OFF Learn More According to Siegel (2003), there are two types of crimes in this theory. An offense-specific crime refers to an event chosen by the perpetrator due to its nature or characteristics. Criminals who specialize in this type of crime are mostly driven by the expected gain, ease of execution (escape routes and getaway vehicles) of the crime or the probability of evading capture/apprehension. On the other hand, an offender-specific crime depends mainly on the personal traits of the perpetrator. Before executing the crime, the criminals analyze their skills and capabilities to gauge whether they indeed have what it takes to carry out the act successfully. In addition to this, the individuals with this mind set are less likely to commit a crime if they feel that there are other legitimate means to actualize their specific goals. It should be noted that there is a significant difference between crime and criminality. Siegel (2003) contends that whil e crime refers to the actual event, criminality is a personal trait. This being said, it may not be surprising to find criminals that do not commit crimes or innocent people that commit crimes. This is because crime is influenced either by personal or situational factors. Criminality as a trait is fostered mainly by personal factors such as economic needs or seizure of available opportunities. For example, a student may choose to peddle drugs to supplement tuition fees or even maintain a particular lifestyle (financial needs). On the other hand, one may decide to shoplift simply because an opportunity has presented itself. Another factor constituting to criminality is false expectations. In this segment, the perpetrators view their criminal activities as a ticket to a better life. They believe that committing crimes present them with a chance of becoming successful or wealth in an uncompromising world. Siegel (2003) states that others learn criminal techniques in a bid to avoid dete ction and apprehension. In this case, the criminals manage to master ways of blending in and minimizing the risks of getting caught. The factors mentioned above have been noted and documented as means that condition people to adapt to criminality. On the other hand, two main factors structure crime: where it occurs (location), and the type of target. The social structure theory Akers (2009) affirms that there is a solid relationship between poverty and crime. The social structure approach to crime assumes that people commit crimes due to social, political, cultural and economic structures that govern them. To further understand the relationship between these structures and crime, we shall divide them and discuss them separately.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Major Theories of Crime Causation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The economic structure of any nation determines the atmosphere that its citizens dw ell in (Deflem, 2006). This is because the availability of money makes it possible to access the necessary amenities required by humans to exist. Such amenities include food, clothing, education, health facilities, security and shelter among others. However, almost every nation in the world experiences inequalities among its citizens in terms of wealth, prestige and power. Such inequalities further lead to socioeconomic stratification where people are grouped according to their financial status. Those people classified as the lower class at times have problems in accessing the amenities mentioned above due to inadequacies in their finances or neglect from the responsible authorities. As a result, they are left in a state of despair, frustration and poverty factors which lead most of them into crime as they try to make their ends meet. In addition to this, the lack of these resources accompanied by poverty has contributed to the elevated levels of school dropouts among the minorities . Siegel (2003) states that the lack of education minimizes the chances of succeeding in life, kills the motivation required to achieve and increases unemployment. Therefore, to cope, people often find themselves committing crimes or doing drugs. Socially, the theory assumes that people commit crimes as a result of the social structures adopted by a community. As mentioned earlier, this approach to crime dwells on the assumption that the unequal distribution of resources leads to an increase in criminal activities within a given area or social group. As such, the presence of gangs, lack of adequate security in the neighborhoods and social disorder are among the significant causes of crime. Akers (2009) states that the social structural approach to crime is further divided into other sub-theories which explain the causes of crime. The social disorganization approach is one such theory, and it assumes that crime is committed due to a general breakdown in the system which leads to a di sorganized community. Secondly is the strain theory which contends that people commit crime due to a conflict between personal goals and the ability to achieve them. Even though we all have goals and dreams, our ability to realize them depends on our social class. This means that the higher class members of society have a better chance of achieving their goals than those in the lower class.Advertising Looking for essay on criminology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This leaves those in the lower class desperate, angry and frustrated; factors which may lead them into committing crimes. The final sub-theory is the cultural deviance theory. This theory is a combination of the other two sub-theories and articulates that the factors that lead to crime push members of the community into formulating a culture which works for their interests. Conclusion Criminology is an essential science in today’s society. The need to understand the mindset of criminals is invaluable. As such, the development of theories that best explore criminality plays a pivotal role in the reduction of crime in our societies. Two of these theories have been highlighted, and the various factors that lead to crime discussed. It is however evident that there is a difference between crime and criminality. Therefore, to minimize crime, the responsible authorities must ensure that they focus on finding the solutions to the latter because solving such issues will go a long way in fighting crime and providing a safer future for generations to come. References Akers, R. L. (2009). Social Learning and Social Structure: A General Theory of Crime and Deviance. USA: Transaction Publishers. Deflem, M. (2010). Popular Culture, Crime, and Social Control. USA: Emerald Group Publishing Dweck, C. S. (2000). Self-theories: their role in motivation, personality, and development. USA: Psychology Press. Miller, J. M. (2009). 21st-century criminology: a reference handbook. USA: SAGE. Siegel, L. J. (2007). Criminology. USA: Wadsworth Publishing. This essay on The Major Theories of Crime Causation was written and submitted by user Camden I. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

20 Criminal Terms You Should Know

20 Criminal Terms You Should Know 20 Criminal Terms You Should Know 20 Criminal Terms You Should Know By Maeve Maddox DISCLAIMER: This is a random list of frequently heard terms that relate to criminal activities. It is NOT comprehensive. It is NOT to be construed as legal advice. If you need reliable legal information, talk to a lawyer who practices law where you reside. Broadly speaking, U.S. law recognizes two types of crime: misdemeanor and felony. Not every state agrees as to the classification of misdemeanors and felonies. For example, in some states domestic abuse is a misdemeanor; in others its a felony. Nonetheless federal guidelines determine the difference between a felony and a misdemeanor in terms of punishment: a crime punished by imprisonment of a year or less is a misdemeanor. 1. arson: From Latin ardere, to burn (pp. arsus). Intentionally damaging a building with fire or explosives. 2. burglary: The crime of breaking into a house with intent to commit theft. Until some time ago this charge occurred only if the felon broke into the house at night. 3. crime: from Latin crimen, charge, indictment, offense. An act punishable by law, as being forbidden by statute or injurious to the public welfare. Legally, a crime consists of two parts: actus rea, the criminal action, and mens rea, the criminal intention. 4. domestic abuse: any act or threatened act against a person with whom an intimate relationship exists or existed, for example, spouse, boy/girlfriend, child. 5. embezzlement: from Anglo-Fr. embesiler to steal, cause to disappear. A person who appropriates to personal use money entrusted for another purpose commits embezzlement. 6. felony: as a term in common law from Old French felonie, wickedness, evil, treachery, perfidy, crime, cruelty, sin. Noun: felon; adjective: felonious. 7. forgery: The creation of a false written document or alteration of a genuine one, with the intent to defraud. 8. human trafficking: the crime of displacing people with a view to exploiting them. 9. kidnapping: a compound of kid (slang for child and nap, a variant of nab, to snatch away. The word first referred to the practice of stealing children or others in order to provide servants and workers for the American colonies. In current usage, the crime of kidnapping is the abduction of a person of any age with the intention of holding the person for ransom or for some other purpose. 10. larceny: from Latin latrocinium, robbery. The felonious taking and carrying away of the personal goods of another with intent to convert them to the takers use. The difference between grand larceny and petit larceny is one of the value (as defined by statute) of the stolen property. 11. manslaughter: from Old English mann, person+slaeht, act of killing. Manslaughter is the unlawful killing of a human being without malicious intent. Voluntary manslaughter is committed in the heat of passion, or while committing another felony. Involuntary manslaughter is the result of accident, such as vehicular manslaughter. 12. moral turpitude: turpitude is from a Latin word meaning vile, ugly, base, shameful. Defining the term in a legal sense is a slippery undertaking. Crimes of moral turpitude include: murder, voluntary manslaughter, rape, domestic violence, prostitution, embezzlement, arson, bribery, blackmal, perjury, and theft. 13. murder: from Old English morà °or. secret killing of a person. Murder is intentionally causing the death of another, either through premediation focused on a particular individual, or by extreme indifference to human life. First degree murder is defined by federal and state laws, which vary. 14. prostitution: from Latin prostituere, to expose to prostitutuion, to expose publicly. Commission of a sex act for money or some other thing of value. 15. receiving: accepting property for use, resale, or disposal that is thought or known by the receiver to have been stolen. 16. robbery: from Old French rober, from a Germanic source meaning to rob, spoil, plunder. Robbery is theft committed openly and with force. 17. stalking: With the sense pursue stealthily, the verb stalk comes from Old English stealcian, as in bestealcian to steal along. An early meaning of stalker was one who prowls for the purposes of theft. In todays usage, stalking is a crime that involves the intentional and repeated following and harrassing of another person to the extent that the targeted person fears bodily harm. 18. theft: depriving another of property. Theft implies subterfuge, while robbery is the open taking of property. Burglary is committed when the thief breaks into a building: 19. treason: AngloNorman treson from a Latin word meaning a handing over, surrender, and influenced by Old French trair betray. Treason is the crime of siding with the enemy, either to fight against ones own country, or to offer aid and comfort to the enemy. 20. trespass: from Old French trespasser, to pass beyond or across. Trespass is entering anothers property without permission. If it is with an illegal intent, its a crime. Illegal dumping is a form of trespass. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:75 Synonyms for â€Å"Angry†On Behalf Of vs. In Behalf Of5 Keys to Better Sentence Flow

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CULTURES WITHOUT A COUNTRY - STATELESS NATION Term Paper

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Integrated assesment

Integrated assesment HNC Social Care Integrated Assessment 2 Catherine McAvoy Values are standards and principals by which we live our lives. These standards are many and often depend on people`s background e.g. Culture, class, religion, gender, age. Values are extremely individual attitudes that direct people`s responses to the world around them. Amongst some of the values I live my life by and respect are privacy allowing me to have space to myself and respecting the fact that others may desire privacy, to be safe and also allowing others the same, having self respect, being trustworthy, being non judgmental, being anti discriminatory, respect life and faith, value freedom and equality, value choice and others points of view. I have learned to live my life this way from my parents and their families. The schools and church where I was taught , espoused the values of  Ã‚   human dignity, solidarity for the common good , charity in truth, and the family,   all of   which I continue to hold dear. I therefore try to ensure that I treat people the way I wou ld like to be treated. Because of these values, I am able to work happily alongside the organization I volunteer for, as their policies and procedures represent many of these common values. I currently volunteer as a Befriender for a group that helps adults with learning disabilities become included within the community through socialization, by matching Befriendees with supportive Befrienders. I, as a volunteer for this organization, provide their service participants with the opportunity to take a full and satisfying part in their community. I also help to raise awareness of issues affecting adults with learning difficulties in community participation. I did this in a major way by participating in the collection and presentation of our petition to the Scottish Parliament to request that Befriending is financed with core funding. Although Befriending, to help social inclusion was briefly mentioned as a means of supporting adults with learning disabilities in Same as you Strategy2000, this article has never been defined by the government as a core service to be provided by councils. As a result, Befriending for Adults with Learning Disabilities has rarely been financed or delivered by statutory services. However, the social work department is the main means of referral to our organization and so for the moment receive this service free, financed by charitable donations. I f eel this is a form of statutory discrimination against our client group and hope our petition resolves this situation. This petition has received a positive reaction from the petitions committee and is still going through the committee processes. I also receive continued training, support, and supervision and engage in partnership working with relevant agencies. The core values of our organisation are underpinned by: National Care Standards , which were set up under the Regulation of Care (Scotland) Act 2001 . This Act came about to regulate the care and social work force and set out the principals of good care practice. The Care Commission was set up under this Act to register, regulate, and inspect all care services listed in the Act. It also established The Scottish Social Services Council (SSSC). The SSSC has aims and objectives to protect the service users, raise standards, strengthen, and support workforce professionalism. There are six main standards laid down in National Care Standards that are at the centre of any care practice. Dignity making someone feel worthy and impressive as defined in the Oxford English Dictionary. I ensure that I give dignity by respecting individuals for who they are. I recognise all individuals are different and I am sensitive and aware of this. Privacy and confidentiality is the need and right to privacy. The principle of confidentiality between me and the service user is built on mutual respect and trust. Confidentiality is further reinforced by the Data Protection Act 1998 . This allows our service users to see any information that is held on them. I must ensure that this information is held securely in a locked filing cabinet. Any information I write in an activity plan must be truthful, factual, and accurate with my opinions to be objective. Choice means giving and explaining different options to individuals. I support our service users by encouraging their right to choose. By offering they limited options that will encourage them to look at positive alternatives within a safe environment. Safety means that I must ensure my service user when in my care, is protected from harm and abuse. If I suspect or observe that harm and abuse has or is taking place, against a service user, I must report the incident in an Incident Report   Form within 36 hrs of the episode to my line manager. I also complete a risk assessment form before any activity. Realising Potential ensures that I must allow my service users the chance to aim to achieve things great and small within their abilities. These core values are represented within our organisations policies and procedures. To ensure client safety we have a Health and Safe ty Policy which is designed to comply with the Health and Safety at work Act 1974. Risk Assessments are used on a daily basis before an activity to ensure that the staff and clients are safe on the premises. We also have Accident and Incident Reporting procedures which are required under the Reporting of Injuries, Diseases, and Dangerous Occurrences Regulation 1995 (RIDDOR) , Social Security Regulations 1979 (SRR), Data Protection Act , to be reported in an efficient manner. I must complete relevant forms and report to my line manager. If an event requires reporting directly to RIDDOR the records should be kept securely for at least three years. Our Equalities policy complies with the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 and 1986, the Race Relations Act of 1976 and the Race Relation Amendments Regulations of 2003, the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 . Our organization opposes all forms of unfair and unlawful discrimination on the grounds of colour, race, religion, nationality, social background, gender, sexual orientation, marital status, age and disability. It also promotes the principle of equal opportunities in paid employment, voluntary work, and service provision. Although it is important to apply positive values within my practice, it is sometimes difficult to do so. Giving someone choice needs to be balanced by ensuring that this choice is safe and positive. Giving Adults with Learning Disabilities too many choices can cause confusion and sometimes fear. So I give limited positive choices to ensure that this does not happen. Safety issues can also limit choices, as under the Health a nd Safety at Work Act 1974 and National Care Standards it is important that I ensure my client is safe from harm and abuse. If a risk assessment shows that an activity is not suitable to the client because of safety issues then the choice of doing that particular activity is reduced. Privacy and confidentiality is dealt with in our Confidentiality policy . Our organization requires information about clients, volunteers, staff other organizations and our own organization. I am therefore committed to ensuring that all information is stored safely which also allows appropriate retrieval. Confidential material must be kept in a locked cabinet. Volunteers are only able to see files on a need to know basis only. Computer access is limited to authorized staff and information backed up and compatible with The Data Protection Act 1998. If a client discloses something to me and asks me not to tell anyone then I must respect his/her wishes as a matter of trust. However, sometimes this can be difficult, especially if abuse is disclosed. Under these circumstances I am obliged to tell him/her that I understand his/her need for confidentiality, but the circumstances require me to advise my line manager in writing and that this will be in his/her best interests and to try not to worry. As we do not supply a care service, we are not required to register with the Care Commission, but we ensure all our policies and procedures meet their standards. As all clients under these standards are legally allowed an individualized care plan, we instead have an activity plan. To ensure no discrimination takes place the client is assessed using (Ref1) PIES . We take into account, our clients Physical needs, Intellectual needs, Emotional needs, and Social needs. Needs were first described as requirements for our survival in the model put forward by ( Ref 2 ) Abraham Maslow , a Humanist Psychologist. He stated that human needs can be arranged in a stepladder pyramid and that the lower level needs must be satisfied before higher levels can be met. Starting from the basic psychological need, then moving to safety and security, social, esteem, and self- actualization. He suggested that not satisfying these needs the person could become frustrated and emotionally distressed, with possibly poverty and crisis taking place. He also suggested that these needs be met in order.  Ã‚   Prejudice as ( Ref 3) defined in the Collins dictionary is an unreasonable dislike of a particular group of people or things, or a preference for a one group of people or things over another. Prejudice is caused by a lack of understanding of something, causing the wrong impression to be created. Working with people with learning disabilities has shown me that prejudice arises amongst some of the local community. This is a small section of the community pre- judging those with learning disabilities through lack of knowledge and so they hold unfavourable views or opinions towards people who are different and so bullying can take place. Adults with learning disabilities are a section of society that tends not to be able to stand up for themselves. They rely on family, social workers, advocacy workers, and support workers to advise them on their rights, choices, and responsibilities. Unfortunately, through no fault of their own, some sections of this community may not receive this relevant information. They do not receive the care, benefits, and advice that they need, or they do not receive the statutory services they deserve. This can be caused by certain people denying our client group their rights and so discriminate against them. Harassment, bullying and hate crimes of those with learning disabilities takes place in many areas, the recent death of a mother and daughter burned to death in England after numerous threats and harassment is an excessive example and result of discrimination. Discrimination takes place through fear, misunderstanding, misinformation, and so as well as laws against discrimination, we need to educate and provide training against it. To try to ensure that the incident that took place does not happen in our community, our organization is involved in providing a training service to the community. I have taken part in training to try to educate youths from the local secondary school about Learning Disabilities. This resulted in them becoming peer volunteers to younger children with Learning Disabilities from the local school for autistic children. A music group was set up to bring these two groups of youngsters together, with positive results. ( Ref 4 ) Adults with Learning Disabilities are more likely to develop health problems. Therefore, without support, they may not be able to make their feelings known and so screening and or treatment may be denied. The need for support to allow them to lead as normal a life as their abilities allow and to access services, has a financial cost to society. The belief that people with learning disabilities, are a financial burden to society, and not providing relevant support is evidence of discrimination . The impact of discrimination on my client group can result in exclusion and marginalization. Psychologically that can result in depression, low self- esteem, frustration, or anger. Causing their behavior to be affected, by them becoming withdrawn or violent. Through legislation, social care organizations now have to be more accountable and have increasing responsibilities to write and maintain policy and procedures. These have to comply with current legislation and exist to protect people`s rights and ensure quality services are provided. Our policies and procedures must have specific guidelines, for example, they cover confidentiality and privacy, equal opportunities, health and safety, abuse policies, lone working practices, activity planning and reviews and risk assessment and management. I have a responsibility to read the organizations policy and procedures thoroughly and integrate them into my practice. I should query any uncertainties and report any infringements. If I am uneasy about the practice of others within the organization or within any other agency I come into contact with, I must report to my line manager and seek advice. My manager has a responsibility to produce these policies and procedures ensuring they incorporate current legislation. Management ensures that staff and service users have easy access to them. Discussion and reflection of policies and procedures to ensure they are justified and explained to staff is encouraged. References. Elizabeth Bingham + . (2009). Social Care: Group Award Graded Unit. In: Heinemann HNC in Social Care. Edinburgh: Heinemann. 147. Elizabeth Bingham + . (2009). Psychological perspectives and Theories on development and needs. In: Heinemann HNC in Social Care. Edinburgh: Heinemann. 86-89. http://dictionary.reverso.net/english-cobuild/prejudice http://www.learningdisabilities.org.uk/media/news-releases/newsreleases-2005/14-july-2005/?locale=en

Is Google Evil? Essay -- Legal Case Monopoly

Google has proposed an agreement with representatives of authors and publishers to host a massive digital library. This library will consist of mostly books published in the United States. Google will make digitally available new and old books. This catalog will include books that are no longer in print and â€Å"orphan† texts (books where the copyright owner is unknown or contact information is unavailable).5 The texts will be available through search engines, for individual sale as electronic-books, and with database subscriptions. If the Google agreement is approved by the Justice Department, ethical issues would come into question. The issues addressed in this paper include whether the agreement creates a â€Å"legally sanctioned cartel for digital book rights†4 and if the public benefits outweigh the monopoly consequences. Google has the network, storage, man power and funding to make this digital library a possibility, yet is this justification enough to give one company so much concentrated power over information access? Using the utilitarian approach, arguments both for and against the Google library agreement can be supported. First the audience should be established. Authors and publishers could be financially affected by this agreement. They are represented as a whole by the Authors Guild and the Association of American Publishers. Both groups are working together to ensure that writers are not under compensated by Google and that publishing prices do not become too high. The Google company and its competitors are directly affected by the outcome of the agreement. Google will take on a huge expense in hopes to gain a reasonable profit. Competitors with equivalent capabilities, such as Microsoft and Amazon, have not expressed ... ...t there is no immediate need to settle for the current agreement. The Authors Guild and the Association of American Publishers should take time to incorporate preventative measures in the agreement. Given the substantial impact the digital library would make time should be taken to re-discuss terms of usage, include amendments and restrictions. References 1. E. HARRIS and R. JAMES, ENGR 482 Class Notes, Texas A&M University (Fall 2009). 2. HARRIS,PRITCHARD, RABINS, â€Å"Engineering Ethics†, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, Belmont (2009) 3. J. E. VASCELLARO and J. A. TRACHTENBERG, â€Å"Digital-Rights Signatories Revisit Google’s deal† , Wall Street Journal; wsj.com (October 29,2009) 4. S. SHANKLAND, â€Å"Google’s Digital-book Future Hangs in the Balance†, News.cnet.com (October 2009) 5. P. SCHRANK, â€Å"Google’s Big Book Case†, The Economist print edition (September 3rd 2009)